Three Categories of Design Thinking: Routine, Simple/Complicated and Complex

Document Type : Original Article

Author

School of Design and Built Environment, Curtin University, Western, Australia.

Abstract

A key problem with the use of the term design thinking is to identify which kinds of design thinking methods are valid for different kinds of design situation. This paper offers a new coherent well-defined approach to dividing Design Thinking methods into three distinct non-overlapping categories each suited to a specific class of design situation. These three categories of design situation are Routine, Simple/Complicated and Complex. Each of these categories of design situation are associated with specific classes of design thinking methods. This exclusive categorisation of design thinking methods into three different classes enables designers (and design sponsors, and stakeholders) to quickly identify for any design project the appropriate design processes, organisational needs and the relative levels of resources, including staffing, time and costs. The paper concludes with a discussion of the emergence of, and reasons for, a fourth category that will require some redefinition of Design Thinking as a concept.

Keywords

References

Aboriginal Affairs NSW (AANSW). (2013). Portrait of La Perouse Partnership Community compared with NSW. http://www.daa.nsw.gov.au/communityprofiles/CommunityPortrait06HLaPerouse.pdf
Ackoff, R. (1974). Systems, messes and interactive planning. Planning and Policy. New York/London: Wiley. p. 417-438.
Akin, O. (1979). An exploration of the design process. Design Methods and Theories. 13(3/4), p. 115-119.
Altshuller, G. S. (1984). Creativity as an exact science. Gordon and Breach Science Publishers. New York.
Alexander, C., Ishikawa, S., & Silverstein, M. (1968). A pattern language which generates multi-service centres. Berkeley, Calif: Center for Environmental Structure.
Altman, S. M. (1974). How long can we go on this way? In Spillers, W., (Ed.), Basic Questions of Design Theory. North-Holland Publishing Company, Amesterdam.
Amabile, T. M. (1983). The social psychology of creativity. Springer Series in Social Psychology.
Ambrose, G., & Harris, P. (2010). Design thinking. AVA Academia. Lausanne
Archer, L. B. (1965). Systematic methods for designers. Council of Industrial Design. London
Archer, L. B. (1968). The structure of design processes. Doctoral Thesis. Royal College of Art.
Archer, L. B. (1984). Systematic methods for designers. In Cross, N. (Ed.), Developments in Design Methodology. John Wiley and Sons Ltd.
Bazjanac, V. (1974). Architectural design theory: Models of the design process. In Spillers, W. (Ed.), Basic Questions of Design Theory. North-Holland Publishing Company, Amsterdam. p. 3-19.
Bishop, R. (2017). Chaos. In Zalta, E. N. (Ed.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Stanford University.
Brotchie, J. A. (1974). Urban Design. In Spillers, W. (Ed.), Basic Questions of Design Theory. North-Holland Publishing Company, Amsterdam.
Brown, T. (2008). Design Thinking. Harvard Business Review. p. 84-92.
Clancey, W. J. (Ed.). (2016). Creative engineering: Promoting innovation by thinking differently by John, E., & Arnold, Jr. (1959). MIT.  
Cohen, R. (2014). Design thinking: A unified framework for innovation. Forbes.
Cross, N., Naughton, J., & Walker, D. (1981). Design method and scientific method. Design Studies, 2(4), 195-201. DOI:10.1016/0142-694X(81)90050-8
Daley, J. (1982). Design creativity and the understanding of objects. Design Studies. 3(3), p. 133-137. https://doi.org/10.1016/0142-694X(82)90005-9
Damasio, A. (1994). Descartes’ error: Emotion, reason and the human brain. Avon Book, New York.
Damasio, A. (2000). The feeling of what happens: Body and emotion in the making of consciousness. Mariner Book, English.
Darke, J. (1979). The primary generator and the design process. In Cross, N. (Ed.), Developments in Design Methodology. John Wiley and Sons Ltd.
Dell'Era, C., Magistretti, S., Cautela, C., Verganti, R., & Zurlo, F. (2020). Four kinds of design thinking: From ideating to making, engaging, and criticizing. Creativity and Innovation Management. 29(2), p. 324-344. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/caim.12353
Dennett, D. C. (1995). Review of damasio, descartes’ error: emotion, reason and the human brain, 1994. Times Literary Supplement. p. 3-4. http://ase.tufts.edu/cogstud/papers/damasio.htm
Eastman, C. (1968). Explorations of the cognitive processes in design. Doctoral thesis. Carnegie-Mellon University.
Eder, W. E. (1966). Definitions and methodologies. In Gregory, S. A. (Ed.), The Design Method. Butterworths. p. 19–31.
Eder, W. E. (1981). Report on workshop W3. In Hubka, V., & Eder, W. E. (Eds.). Schriftenreihe WDK 7 Results of ICED 81 (Rome). Heurista.
Fielden, G. B. R. (1963). Engineering design. Report of Royal Commission. HMSO, London.
Forrester, J. W. (1971). Counterintuitive behavior of social systems. Technology Review. 73(3), p. 52-68.
Forrester, J. W. (1972). Understanding the counter-intuitive behaviour of social systems. In Open Systems Group (Ed.). Systems Behaviour. Harper & Rowe Ltd. p. 270-287
Forrester, J. W. (1975). Counterintuitive behavior of social systems, 1970. In Forrester, J. W. (Ed.), Collected Papers of Jay W. Forrester. Wright-Allen Press Inc.
French, M. J. (1971). Engineering design: The conceptual stage. Heinemann Educational. London.
Frisendal, T. (2012). Design thinking business analysis: Business concept. Mapping applied. Springer. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-32844-2
Gerber, N. (2018). A critical review of design thinking. Medium. August 20. https://medium.com/@niklausgerber/a-critical-review-of-design-thinking-44d8aed89e90
Glegg, G. L. (1969). The design of design. Cambridge University Press. ISBN: 0521112311.
Glegg, G. L. (1971). The science of design. Cambridge University Press. ISBN: 0521113199
Greene, J. (2010). Design is how it works: How the smartest companies turn products into icons. Portfolio.
Gregory, S. A. (Ed.). (1966). The design method. Springer Science+Business Media. NewYork.
Gregory, S. A. (1966). Design Science. In Gregory, S. A. (Ed.), The Design Method. Springer Science+Business Media. NewYork.
Hernández-Ramírez, R. (2018). On design thinking, bullshit, and innovation. Journal of Science and Technology of the Arts. 10(3), p. 2-45.
Higgins, M. (2020). The benefits of incorporating design thinking into business. Forbes.
Iskander, N. (2018). Design thinking is fundamentally conservative and preserves the status quo. Harvard Business Review. September 5. https://hbr.org/2018/09/design-thinking-is-fundamentally-conservative-and-preserves-the-status-quo
Jones, J. C. (1966). Design methods reviewed. In Gregory, S. A. (Ed.), The Design Method. Butterworths.
Jones, J. C. (1970). Design methods: Seeds of human futures. Wiley-Interscience.
Jones, J. C., & Thornley, D. G. (1963). Conference on design methods: Papers presented at the conference on systematic and intuitive methods in engineering, industrial design, architecture and Communications, London, September 1962. New York: Macmillan.
Lawson, B. (1980). How designers think: The design process demystified. Architectural.
Lee, K. (2021). Critique of design thinking in organizations: Strongholds and shortcomings of the making paradigm. She Ji: The Journal of Design, Economics, and Innovation. 7(4), p. 497-515.
Leech, D. J. (1972). Management of engineering design. John Wiley and Sons.
Lera, S. (1981). Architectural designers’ values and the evaluation of their designs. Design Studies. 2(3), p. 131-137.
Levin, P. H. (1966). Decision-making in urban design. In Cross, N. (Ed.), Developments in Design Methodology. John Wiley and Sons.
Lewis, W. P. (1981). The role of intelligence in the design of mechanical components. North-Holland Publishing Company. p. 59-88.
Liu, R., & Mannhardt, L. (2019). Design thinking and business model innovation. International Product Development Management Annual Conference. Leicester, UK.
Lockwood, T. (2009). Design thinking: Integrating innovation, customer experience and brand value. Allworth Press: Design Management Institute.
Loewe, S. (2019). Toward a critical design thinking: Propositions to rewrite the design thinking process. Dialectic. 2(2). DOI: 10.3998/dialectic.14932326.0002.208
Love, T. (1998). Social, environmental and ethical factors in engineering design theory: A post positivist approach. PhD thesis, University of Western Australia. Perth.
Love, T. (2000). Philosophy of design: A meta-theoretical structure for design theory. Design Studies. 21(3), p. 293-313.
Love, T. (2003). Design and sense: Implications of damasio's neurological findings for design theory. Science and Technology of Design, Sense and Sensibility in Technology: Linking Tradition to Innovation through Design. Lisbon, Portugal: IADE. p. 170-176.
Love, T. (2010). Can you feel it? Yes we can! Human Limitations in Design Theory. Semantic. Copenhagen.
Love, T. (2010). Design guideline gap and 2 feedback loop limitation: Two issues in design and emotion theory, research and practice. In Gregory, J., Sato, K., & Desmet, P. (Eds.), Proceedings of the 7th Design and Emotion Conference 2010 Blatantly Blues. Institute of Design and Design and Emotion Society.
Matchett, E. (1963). The controlled evolution of an engineering design. In Conference Systematic Design Methods, Engineering Employers’ West of England Association.
Matchett, M. (1967). FDM - a means of controlled thinking and personal growth. In House, E. (Ed.), Proceedings of the State Conference of Designers.
Matousek, R. (1963). Engineering design a systematic approach. Blackie and Son Ltd.
McKendrick, J. (2020). These days, everyone needs to engage in design thinking. Forbes.
Meinel, C., Leifer, L. J., & Plattner, H. (2011). Design thinking, Understand - Improve - Apply. Springer. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-13757-0
Middendorf, W. H. (1969). Engineering Design. Allyn and Bacon, Inc.
Montgomery, R. (1970). Pattern language. Architectural Forum. 132(1), p. 52-59.
Mosca, A. (2000). A review essay on Antonio Damasio's the feeling of what Happens: Body and emotion in the making of consciousness. Psyche. 6(10).
Müller-Roterberg, C. (2018). Handbook of design thinking. Kindle Direct Publishing. ISBN: 978-1790435371.
Newell, A., & Simon, H. A. (1972). Human problem solving. Prentice-Hall.
Pahl, G. (2005). VADEMECUM – recommendations for developing and applying design methodologies. In Clarkson, J. & Huhtala, M. (Eds.), Engineering Design Theory and Practice. p. 127-135.
Parnas, D. L., & Clements, P. C. (1986). A rational design process: How and why to fake it. IEEE Transactions on Software Engineering. SE-12(2), p. 251-257.
Plattner, H. (2010). An introduction to design thinking process guide. Hasso Plattner Institute of Design.
Plattner, H., Meinel, C., & Leifer, L. J. (2011). Design thinking: understand - improve - apply. Springer.
Pugh, S. (1990). Total design. Addison-Wesley Publishers Ltd.
Pye, D. (1964). The nature of design. Studio Vista Ltd.
Rittel, H. (1971). Some principles for the design of an educational system For design. Journal of Architectural Education. 26(1-2), p. 16-27.
Rittel, H. W. J., & Webber, M. W. (1973). Dilemmas in a general theory of planning. Policy Sciences. 4(2), p. 155-169.
Rodgers, P., & Winton, E. (2010). Design thinking – A critical analysis. International Conference on Engineering and Product Design Education. Norwegian University of Science and Technology. Trondheim, Norway.
Roe, P. H., Handa, V. K., &  Soulis, G. N. (1967). The discipline of design. University of Waterloo.
Ross, I. M. (1966). Effect of organisational procedures on design - An outline of the problems. In Gregory, S. A. (Ed.), The Design Method. Butterworths. p. 269-277.
Sato, M. a. (2010). An investigation into the relationship between design thinking and skilled knowledge and craft education. Doctoral Thesis. University of Roehampton London.
Shamiyeh, M., & DOM Research Laboratory. (2010). Creating desired futures: How design thinking innovates business. Birkhauser Architecture.
Simon, H. A. (1969). The sciences of the artificial. MIT Press.
Simon, H. A. (1981). The sciences of the artificial, Second edition. MIT Press.
Sloman, A. (1998). Damasio, descartes, alarms and meta-management. School of Computer Science, The University of Birmingham. UK.
Snowden, D., & Boone, M. E. (2007). A leader's framework for decision making. Harvard Business Review. https://hbr.org/2007/11/a-leaders-framework-for-decision-making
Spillers, W. R. (1974). Basic questions of design theory. North-Holland Publishing Company.
Sterman, J. D. (1991). A Skeptic’s guide to computer models. In Barney, G. O., Kreutzer, W. B., & Garrett, M. J. (Eds.), Managing a Nation: The Microcomputer Software Catalog. Westview Press. p. 209-229.
Sterman, J. D. (2002). All models are wrong: Reflections on becoming a systems scientist. System Dynamics Review. 18(4), p. 501-531.
Talukdar, S., Rehg, J., & Elfes, A. (1988). Descriptive models for design projects. In Gero, J. S. (Ed.), Artificial Intelligence in Engineering Design. Computational Mechanics Publications.
Ullman, D. G. (1992). A taxonomy for mechanical design. Research in Engineering Design. 3, p. 179-189.
Ullman, D. G. (2010). The mechanical design process (4th ed.). McGraw-Hill Series in Machanical Engineering.
Woodson, T. T. (1966). Introduction to engineering design. McGraw Hill Text.
Zwicky, F. (1969). Discovery, invention, research through the morphological approach. Macmillian
Aboriginal Affairs NSW (AANSW). (2013). Portrait of La Perouse Partnership Community compared with NSW. http://www.daa.nsw.gov.au/communityprofiles/CommunityPortrait06HLaPerouse.pdf
Ackoff, R. (1974). Systems, messes and interactive planning. Planning and Policy. New York/London: Wiley. p. 417-438.
Akin, O. (1979). An exploration of the design process. Design Methods and Theories. 13(3/4), p. 115-119.
Altshuller, G. S. (1984). Creativity as an exact science. Gordon and Breach Science Publishers. New York.
Alexander, C., Ishikawa, S., & Silverstein, M. (1968). A pattern language which generates multi-service centres. Berkeley, Calif: Center for Environmental Structure.
Altman, S. M. (1974). How long can we go on this way? In Spillers, W., (Ed.), Basic Questions of Design Theory. North-Holland Publishing Company, Amesterdam.
Amabile, T. M. (1983). The social psychology of creativity. Springer Series in Social Psychology.
Ambrose, G., & Harris, P. (2010). Design thinking. AVA Academia. Lausanne
Archer, L. B. (1965). Systematic methods for designers. Council of Industrial Design. London
Archer, L. B. (1968). The structure of design processes. Doctoral Thesis. Royal College of Art.
Archer, L. B. (1984). Systematic methods for designers. In Cross, N. (Ed.), Developments in Design Methodology. John Wiley and Sons Ltd.
Bazjanac, V. (1974). Architectural design theory: Models of the design process. In Spillers, W. (Ed.), Basic Questions of Design Theory. North-Holland Publishing Company, Amsterdam. p. 3-19.
Bishop, R. (2017). Chaos. In Zalta, E. N. (Ed.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Stanford University.
Brotchie, J. A. (1974). Urban Design. In Spillers, W. (Ed.), Basic Questions of Design Theory. North-Holland Publishing Company, Amsterdam.
Brown, T. (2008). Design Thinking. Harvard Business Review. p. 84-92.
Clancey, W. J. (Ed.). (2016). Creative engineering: Promoting innovation by thinking differently by John, E., & Arnold, Jr. (1959). MIT.  
Cohen, R. (2014). Design thinking: A unified framework for innovation. Forbes.
Cross, N., Naughton, J., & Walker, D. (1981). Design method and scientific method. Design Studies, 2(4), 195-201. DOI:10.1016/0142-694X(81)90050-8
Daley, J. (1982). Design creativity and the understanding of objects. Design Studies. 3(3), p. 133-137. https://doi.org/10.1016/0142-694X(82)90005-9
Damasio, A. (1994). Descartes’ error: Emotion, reason and the human brain. Avon Book, New York.
Damasio, A. (2000). The feeling of what happens: Body and emotion in the making of consciousness. Mariner Book, English.
Darke, J. (1979). The primary generator and the design process. In Cross, N. (Ed.), Developments in Design Methodology. John Wiley and Sons Ltd.
Dell'Era, C., Magistretti, S., Cautela, C., Verganti, R., & Zurlo, F. (2020). Four kinds of design thinking: From ideating to making, engaging, and criticizing. Creativity and Innovation Management. 29(2), p. 324-344. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/caim.12353
Dennett, D. C. (1995). Review of damasio, descartes’ error: emotion, reason and the human brain, 1994. Times Literary Supplement. p. 3-4. http://ase.tufts.edu/cogstud/papers/damasio.htm
Eastman, C. (1968). Explorations of the cognitive processes in design. Doctoral thesis. Carnegie-Mellon University.
Eder, W. E. (1966). Definitions and methodologies. In Gregory, S. A. (Ed.), The Design Method. Butterworths. p. 19–31.
Eder, W. E. (1981). Report on workshop W3. In Hubka, V., & Eder, W. E. (Eds.). Schriftenreihe WDK 7 Results of ICED 81 (Rome). Heurista.
Fielden, G. B. R. (1963). Engineering design. Report of Royal Commission. HMSO, London.
Forrester, J. W. (1971). Counterintuitive behavior of social systems. Technology Review. 73(3), p. 52-68.
Forrester, J. W. (1972). Understanding the counter-intuitive behaviour of social systems. In Open Systems Group (Ed.). Systems Behaviour. Harper & Rowe Ltd. p. 270-287
Forrester, J. W. (1975). Counterintuitive behavior of social systems, 1970. In Forrester, J. W. (Ed.), Collected Papers of Jay W. Forrester. Wright-Allen Press Inc.
French, M. J. (1971). Engineering design: The conceptual stage. Heinemann Educational. London.
Frisendal, T. (2012). Design thinking business analysis: Business concept. Mapping applied. Springer. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-32844-2
Gerber, N. (2018). A critical review of design thinking. Medium. August 20. https://medium.com/@niklausgerber/a-critical-review-of-design-thinking-44d8aed89e90
Glegg, G. L. (1969). The design of design. Cambridge University Press. ISBN: 0521112311.
Glegg, G. L. (1971). The science of design. Cambridge University Press. ISBN: 0521113199
Greene, J. (2010). Design is how it works: How the smartest companies turn products into icons. Portfolio.
Gregory, S. A. (Ed.). (1966). The design method. Springer Science+Business Media. NewYork.
Gregory, S. A. (1966). Design Science. In Gregory, S. A. (Ed.), The Design Method. Springer Science+Business Media. NewYork.
Hernández-Ramírez, R. (2018). On design thinking, bullshit, and innovation. Journal of Science and Technology of the Arts. 10(3), p. 2-45.
Higgins, M. (2020). The benefits of incorporating design thinking into business. Forbes.
Iskander, N. (2018). Design thinking is fundamentally conservative and preserves the status quo. Harvard Business Review. September 5. https://hbr.org/2018/09/design-thinking-is-fundamentally-conservative-and-preserves-the-status-quo
Jones, J. C. (1966). Design methods reviewed. In Gregory, S. A. (Ed.), The Design Method. Butterworths.
Jones, J. C. (1970). Design methods: Seeds of human futures. Wiley-Interscience.
Jones, J. C., & Thornley, D. G. (1963). Conference on design methods: Papers presented at the conference on systematic and intuitive methods in engineering, industrial design, architecture and Communications, London, September 1962. New York: Macmillan.
Lawson, B. (1980). How designers think: The design process demystified. Architectural.
Lee, K. (2021). Critique of design thinking in organizations: Strongholds and shortcomings of the making paradigm. She Ji: The Journal of Design, Economics, and Innovation. 7(4), p. 497-515.
Leech, D. J. (1972). Management of engineering design. John Wiley and Sons.
Lera, S. (1981). Architectural designers’ values and the evaluation of their designs. Design Studies. 2(3), p. 131-137.
Levin, P. H. (1966). Decision-making in urban design. In Cross, N. (Ed.), Developments in Design Methodology. John Wiley and Sons.
Lewis, W. P. (1981). The role of intelligence in the design of mechanical components. North-Holland Publishing Company. p. 59-88.
Liu, R., & Mannhardt, L. (2019). Design thinking and business model innovation. International Product Development Management Annual Conference. Leicester, UK.
Lockwood, T. (2009). Design thinking: Integrating innovation, customer experience and brand value. Allworth Press: Design Management Institute.
Loewe, S. (2019). Toward a critical design thinking: Propositions to rewrite the design thinking process. Dialectic. 2(2). DOI: 10.3998/dialectic.14932326.0002.208
Love, T. (1998). Social, environmental and ethical factors in engineering design theory: A post positivist approach. PhD thesis, University of Western Australia. Perth.
Love, T. (2000). Philosophy of design: A meta-theoretical structure for design theory. Design Studies. 21(3), p. 293-313.
Love, T. (2003). Design and sense: Implications of damasio's neurological findings for design theory. Science and Technology of Design, Sense and Sensibility in Technology: Linking Tradition to Innovation through Design. Lisbon, Portugal: IADE. p. 170-176.
Love, T. (2010). Can you feel it? Yes we can! Human Limitations in Design Theory. Semantic. Copenhagen.
Love, T. (2010). Design guideline gap and 2 feedback loop limitation: Two issues in design and emotion theory, research and practice. In Gregory, J., Sato, K., & Desmet, P. (Eds.), Proceedings of the 7th Design and Emotion Conference 2010 Blatantly Blues. Institute of Design and Design and Emotion Society.
Matchett, E. (1963). The controlled evolution of an engineering design. In Conference Systematic Design Methods, Engineering Employers’ West of England Association.
Matchett, M. (1967). FDM - a means of controlled thinking and personal growth. In House, E. (Ed.), Proceedings of the State Conference of Designers.
Matousek, R. (1963). Engineering design a systematic approach. Blackie and Son Ltd.
McKendrick, J. (2020). These days, everyone needs to engage in design thinking. Forbes.
Meinel, C., Leifer, L. J., & Plattner, H. (2011). Design thinking, Understand - Improve - Apply. Springer. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-13757-0
Middendorf, W. H. (1969). Engineering Design. Allyn and Bacon, Inc.
Montgomery, R. (1970). Pattern language. Architectural Forum. 132(1), p. 52-59.
Mosca, A. (2000). A review essay on Antonio Damasio's the feeling of what Happens: Body and emotion in the making of consciousness. Psyche. 6(10).
Müller-Roterberg, C. (2018). Handbook of design thinking. Kindle Direct Publishing. ISBN: 978-1790435371.
Newell, A., & Simon, H. A. (1972). Human problem solving. Prentice-Hall.
Pahl, G. (2005). VADEMECUM – recommendations for developing and applying design methodologies. In Clarkson, J. & Huhtala, M. (Eds.), Engineering Design Theory and Practice. p. 127-135.
Parnas, D. L., & Clements, P. C. (1986). A rational design process: How and why to fake it. IEEE Transactions on Software Engineering. SE-12(2), p. 251-257.
Plattner, H. (2010). An introduction to design thinking process guide. Hasso Plattner Institute of Design.
Plattner, H., Meinel, C., & Leifer, L. J. (2011). Design thinking: understand - improve - apply. Springer.
Pugh, S. (1990). Total design. Addison-Wesley Publishers Ltd.
Pye, D. (1964). The nature of design. Studio Vista Ltd.
Rittel, H. (1971). Some principles for the design of an educational system For design. Journal of Architectural Education. 26(1-2), p. 16-27.
Rittel, H. W. J., & Webber, M. W. (1973). Dilemmas in a general theory of planning. Policy Sciences. 4(2), p. 155-169.
Rodgers, P., & Winton, E. (2010). Design thinking – A critical analysis. International Conference on Engineering and Product Design Education. Norwegian University of Science and Technology. Trondheim, Norway.
Roe, P. H., Handa, V. K., &  Soulis, G. N. (1967). The discipline of design. University of Waterloo.
Ross, I. M. (1966). Effect of organisational procedures on design - An outline of the problems. In Gregory, S. A. (Ed.), The Design Method. Butterworths. p. 269-277.
Sato, M. a. (2010). An investigation into the relationship between design thinking and skilled knowledge and craft education. Doctoral Thesis. University of Roehampton London.
Shamiyeh, M., & DOM Research Laboratory. (2010). Creating desired futures: How design thinking innovates business. Birkhauser Architecture.
Simon, H. A. (1969). The sciences of the artificial. MIT Press.
Simon, H. A. (1981). The sciences of the artificial, Second edition. MIT Press.
Sloman, A. (1998). Damasio, descartes, alarms and meta-management. School of Computer Science, The University of Birmingham. UK.
Snowden, D., & Boone, M. E. (2007). A leader's framework for decision making. Harvard Business Review. https://hbr.org/2007/11/a-leaders-framework-for-decision-making
Spillers, W. R. (1974). Basic questions of design theory. North-Holland Publishing Company.
Sterman, J. D. (1991). A Skeptic’s guide to computer models. In Barney, G. O., Kreutzer, W. B., & Garrett, M. J. (Eds.), Managing a Nation: The Microcomputer Software Catalog. Westview Press. p. 209-229.
Sterman, J. D. (2002). All models are wrong: Reflections on becoming a systems scientist. System Dynamics Review. 18(4), p. 501-531.
Talukdar, S., Rehg, J., & Elfes, A. (1988). Descriptive models for design projects. In Gero, J. S. (Ed.), Artificial Intelligence in Engineering Design. Computational Mechanics Publications.
Ullman, D. G. (1992). A taxonomy for mechanical design. Research in Engineering Design. 3, p. 179-189.
Ullman, D. G. (2010). The mechanical design process (4th ed.). McGraw-Hill Series in Machanical Engineering.
Woodson, T. T. (1966). Introduction to engineering design. McGraw Hill Text.
Zwicky, F. (1969). Discovery, invention, research through the morphological approach. Macmillian
This article is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditios of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC-BY) license.
 
.
Zwicky, F., & Wilson, A. (Ed.). (1967). New methods of thought and procedure: Contributions to the symposium on methodologies. Springer-Verlag. New York.
This article is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditios of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC-BY) license.
 
.
Zwicky, F., & Wilson, A. (Ed.). (1967). New methods of thought and procedure: Contributions to the symposium on methodologies. Springer-Verlag. New York.
Journal of Design Thinking
Volume 2, Issue 2
December 2021
Pages 191-214

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