The Effectiveness of “Understanding by Design” Pedagogical Service on Sixth-Grade Students’ Cognitive Load

Document Type : Original Article

Authors

Faculty of Design, Tabriz Islamic Art University, Tabriz, Iran.

Abstract

The growing complexity of instructional materials in elementary science education may impose excessive cognitive load on learners and hinder meaningful learning. Therefore, identifying instructional approaches that effectively manage students’ cognitive load has become an important concern in educational research. The present study investigated the effectiveness of the Understanding by Design (UbD) framework in reducing the cognitive load of sixth‑grade students in science. This quasi‑experimental study was conducted during the fall semester of the 2022–2023 academic year in Shabestar, Iran. Sixty sixth‑grade students participated and were randomly assigned to an experimental group (n = 30) and a control group (n = 30). The experimental group received science instruction designed according to the UbD framework, while the control group was taught using conventional instructional methods. Students’ cognitive load was measured using the PASS Cognitive Load Questionnaire. The collected data were analyzed using descriptive statistics (mean and standard deviation) and inferential statistics through univariate analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) in SPSS version 25. The findings indicated that UbD‑based instruction significantly reduced students’ cognitive load compared with traditional teaching methods. These results suggest that aligning learning objectives, assessment evidence, and instructional activities within the UbD framework can facilitate more efficient information processing, reduce unnecessary mental effort, and ultimately enhance the quality and effectiveness of learning.

Keywords

Main Subjects


Abazari, S., Bagheri, M., & Sepahvand, T. (2022). The effect of education based on the four-component
instructional design model on students’ problem-solving skills. Cognitive Strategies in Learning, 9(17),
91–106. [In Persian]. DOI: 10.22084/J.PSYCHOGY.2020.22319.2197
Abdi, A., & Rostami, M. (2017). The effectiveness of the teaching method based on the effects of cognitive
load on academic progress, perceived cognitive load, and students’ motivation to learn experimental science.
Education and Evaluation (Educational Sciences), 10(40), 43–67. [In Persian].
https://sanad.iau.ir/journal/jinev/Article/972550
Afidah, N. T., & Hernawan, A. H. (2025). Understanding by Design (UbD) Learning Model for Developing
Independent Learning Competencies in a Madrasah Ibtidaiyah. Khazanah Pendidikan Islam, 7(2), 183-194.
DOI: 10.15575/kp. v7i2.48921
Almasaed, T. F. (2017). The impact of using understanding by design (UbD) model on 8th-grade students’
achievement in science. European Scientific Journal, 13(4), 301–315.
https://doi.org/10.19044/esj.2017.v13n4p301
Andrews, S. A. (2011). Development and use of essential learning goals and their impact on student
reading achievement in grades two through [final grade level] (Doctoral dissertation, University of
Missouri–St. Louis). Available from ProOuest Dissertations and Theses database. (UMI No. 3602556)
Aspandi, A., & Muttaqin, M. A. (2025). Transforming teacher roles in Indonesia’s digital era: Enhancing
learning effectiveness and student engagement. Journal of General Education and Humanities, 4(4), 1495-
1510. https://doi.org/10.58421/gehu.v4i4.616
Bulgren, J., Deshler, D. D., & Lenz, B. K. (2007). Engaging adolescents with LD in higher order thinking
about history concepts using integrated content enhancement routines. Journal of Learning Disabilities,
40(2), 121-133. https://doi.org/10.1177/00222194070400020301
Chang, P., Cheng, S., Cheng, C., Tang, J., & Tzeng, C. (2022). An exploration of instructional design and
its effectiveness of using cognitive load perspective in electronics experiment course. In 2022 IEEE
International Conference on Teaching, Assessment and Learning for Engineering (TALE) (pp. 415–422).
IEEE. DOI: 10.1109/TALE54877.2022.00074
Cho, J., & Trent, A. (2005). Backward curriculum design and assessment: What goes around comes
around. The Journal of Culture and Education, 9(2), 105–122. ISSN:1080-5400
Clark, R. C., Nguyen, F., & Sweller, J. (2011). Efficiency in learning: Evidence-based guidelines to manage
cognitive load. John Wiley & Sons.
Corvo, A. F. (2014). Utilizing the National Research Council’s (NRC) conceptual framework for the Next
Generation Science Standards (NGSS): A self-study in my science, engineering, and mathematics
classroom (Doctoral dissertation). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global. (UMI No. 3620871).
Eesee, A. K., Varga, V., Eigner, G., & Ruppert, T. (2025). Impact of work instruction difficulty on cognitive
load and operational efficiency. Scientific Reports, 15(1), 11028. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-
95942-7 .
Fry, H., Ketteridge, S. & Marshall, S. (2009). A handbook for teaching and learning in higher education:
Enhancing academic practice. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-203-89141-4 Master e-book ISBN .
Gersten, R., Baker, S. K., Smith-Johnson, J., Dimino, J., & Peterson, A. (2006). Eyes on the prize: Teaching
complex historical content to middle school students with learning disabilities. Exceptional Children, 72(3),
264–280. https://doi.org/10.1177/001440290607200301
Gloria, R. Y., Sudarmin, Wiyanto, & Indriyanti, D. R. (2017). Pemahaman mahasiswa calon guru biologi
dengan indikator Understanding by Design (UbD) pada topik fisiologi tumbuhan. In The 5th URECOL
Proceeding, UAD Yogyakarta (pp. 1248–1253). ISBN 978-979-3812-42-7.
Gloria, R. Y., Sudarmin, Wiyanto, & Indriyanti, D. R. (2019). Applying formative assessment through
Understanding by Design (UbD) in the lecture of plant physiology to improve prospective teacher education
students’ understanding. Journal of Turkish Science Education, 16(3), 350–363. ISSN: EISSN-1304-6020
Gotwals, A. W., & Songer, N. B. (2009). Reasoning up and down a food chain: Using an assessment
framework to investigate students’ middle knowledge. Science Education, 94(2), 228–259.
https://doi.org/10.1002/sce.20368
Gürbüz, Ö., & Yurtseven, N. (2026). Understanding by Design (UbD) Model in Mathematics Teaching and
its Impact on Students. International Electronic Journal of Elementary Education, 18(3), 361-376. DOI:
10.26822/iejee.2026.438
Heizel, M. Salayo. T. (2010). Designing curriculum plan in secondary mathematics IV using UbD
framework. A Special Project Presented to the Graduate Faculty of the College of Science Philippine
Normal University/In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Master of Education Major
in Mathematics.
Johnson, D. C., Peterson, A. D., Spears, A., & Vest, J. (2017). Investigating “Understanding by Design” in
the national music education standards: Perspectives and practices of music teacher educators. Visions of
Research in Music Education, 30(1), 5. ISSN: 1968-2065
Kalyuga, S., Chandler, P., & Sweller, J. (2001). Learner experience and efficiency of instructional guidance.
Educational Psychology, 21(1), 5–23. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410124681
Khedivi, A., & Malek-Mohammadi, F. (2008). Comparison of active and traditional teaching methods in
science lesson progress and creativity of third-grade students in Karaj during the 2007–2008 academic year.
Scientific Journal of Education and Evaluation, 1(2), 95–120. [In Persian].
https://www.magiran.com/p1608973
Kuntari, F. R., Rondonuwu, F. S., & Sudjito, D. N. (2019). Understanding by design (UbD) for physics
learning about parabolic motion. Jurnal Penelitian Fisika dan Aplikasinya (JPFA), 9(1), 32–43. DOI:
10.26740/jpfa. v9n1.p32-43
Latifah, R. N., Nuraina, E., & Handayani, S. N. (2025). Meaningful learning planning through
understanding by design. Journal of Education Action Research, 9(4), 597-607. DOI:
https://doi.org/10.23887/jear.v9i4.97928
Lan, Y. (2025). A qualitative systematic review on AI-empowered self-regulated learning in higher
education. npj Science of Learning. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41539-025-00319-0
Lynd-Balta, E. (2006). Using literature and innovative assessments to ignite interest and cultivate critical
thinking skills in an undergraduate neuroscience course. CBE—Life Sciences Education, 5(2), 167–174.
https://doi.org/10.1187/cbe.05-08-0108
Masrabadi, J., & Erfani Adab, E. (2014). Meta-analysis of the relationship between learning strategies and
academic achievement. Cognitive Strategies in Learning, 2(2), 97–118. [In Persian].
McTighe, J., & Silver, H. (2020). Teaching for deeper learning: Tools to engage students in
meaning-making. Corwin. Association for Supervision & Curriculum Development: Alexandria, VA, USA
McTighe, J., & Willis, J. (2019). Upgrade your teaching: Understanding by Design meets neuroscience.
Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
Mahbub, A., & Beedle, J. (2025). Behaviorists, cognitivists, and constructivists learning theories: A
comparison and application in instructional design. European Journal of Education Studies, 12(6). ISSN:
2501 -1111
Mullis, I. V. S., Martin, M. O., Foy, P., & Hooper, M. (2024). TIMSS 2023 international results in
mathematics and science. TIMSS & PIRLS International Study Center, Boston College.:
https://timssandpirls.bc.edu/timss2007/intl_reports.html
Nayman, H. B., Nayman, K., & Altun, S. (2020). A case study: Upon an English course prepared by
Understanding by Design (UbD) with 6th grade students. International Journal of Languages’ Education
and Teaching, 8(3), 118–135. Doi :10.29228/ijlet.45171
Newell, A. D., Foldes, C. A., Haddock, A. J., Ismail, N., & Moreno, N. P. (2023). Twelve tips for using the
Understanding by Design® curriculum planning framework. Medical Teacher.
https://doi.org/10.1080/0142159X.2023.2221947
Nguyen, G.-N., & Miller, D. (2025). Backward design process and instruction models. Planning and
Curriculum.
Orhani, S., & Canhasi-Kasemi, E. (2026). Using Sweller's cognitive load theory to improve learning of
derivative concepts. European Journal of Science and Mathematics Education. ISSN: 2301-251X
Ouwehand, K., Lespiau, F., Tricot, A., & Paas, F. (2025). Cognitive load theory: emerging trends and
innovations. Education Sciences, 15(4), 458. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci15040458
Ozyurt. Havva Kan, Aslı Kiyikci. (2021). The Effectiveness of Understanding by Design Model in Science
Teaching. Eurasian Journal of Educational Research, 94, 1-24. DOI: 10.14689/ejer.2021.94.1
Paas, F. G. W. C., van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Adam, J. J. (1994). Measurement of cognitive load in
instructional research. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 79(1), 419–430.
https://doi.org/10.2466/pms.1994.79.1.419
Paas, F., & van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (2020). Cognitive-load theory: Methods to manage working memory
load in the learning of complex tasks. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 29(4), 394–398.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721420922183
Penuel, W. R., & Gallagher, L. P. (2009). Preparing teachers to design instruction in middle school earth
science: Comparing the impacts of three professional development programs on teaching and learning.
Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Society for Research on Educational Effectiveness (SREE),
March 1–3, Virginia, United States. ISSN: N/A.ERIC Number: ED528461 
Ramli, D. P. S., & Argaswari, D. P. A. D. (2023). Praktik mengajar Understanding by Design (UbD) bagi
calon guru pendidikan matematika di Universitas Sampoerna. Edukatif: Jurnal Ilmu Pendidikan, 5(3),
1492–1504. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/:10.31004/educatif.v5i3.4865
Rezazadeh-Sharmeh, M., & Hashemi, S. (2019). Comparing the effects of teaching methods based on
cognitive load theory, multimedia, and lecture on students’ learning in science [Article in Persian].
Quarterly Journal of Research in Educational and Virtual Learning, 8(2), 93–103 .
doi.10.30473/etl.2020.54246.3283
Saodah, S., Mulyasari, E., & Anggia Rahman, G. (2023). Upaya meningkatkan pemahaman peserta didik
kelas IV materi gaya dengan rancangan Understanding by Design (UbD) melalui penerapan model RADEC.
Didaktik: Jurnal Ilmiah PGSD STKIP Subang, 9(1), 560–571. DOI:10.36989/didaktik. v9i1.674
Salari, M., & Amirteimouri, M. H. (2017). Investigating the effect of the four-component instructional
design model on the level of external cognitive load and learning complex topics [Article in Persian].
Quarterly Journal of Educational Psychology, 13(44), 173–197.[In Persian].SID.
https://sid.ir/paper/523242/fa
Schnotz, W., Fries, S., & Horz, H. (2009). Motivational aspects of cognitive load theory. In M. Wosnitza,
S. A. Karabenick, A. Efklides, & P. Nenniger (Eds.), Contemporary motivation research: From global to
local perspectives (pp. 69–96). Springer.
Scruggs, T. E., Mastropieri, M. A., & McDuffie, K. A. (2007). Co-teaching in inclusive classrooms: A
metasynthesis of qualitative research. Exceptional Children, 73(4), 392–416.
https://doi.org/10.1177/001440290707300401
Shirali Nejad, F., Ghasemi, M., & Emami Pour, S. (2012). Comparing the effectiveness of traditional,
electronic, and blended education on the cognitive load of gifted adolescent girls [Article in Persian].
Applied Family Therapy, 3(1), 363–384.
Siregar, T. (2025). Balancing higher- and lower-order thinking skills: An analysis of lecturers’ pedagogical
practices in higher education. SSRN. https://ssrn.com/abstract=5590290
Skulmowski, A., & Xu, K. M. (2022). Understanding cognitive load in digital and online learning
environments. Computers & Education, 181, 104447. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2022.104447
Smith, M. K., Wood, W. B., & Knight, J. K. (2008). The genetics concept assessment: A new concept
inventory for gauging student understanding of genetics. CBE—Life Sciences Education, 7(4), 422–430.
https://doi.org/10.1187/cbe.08-08-0045
Snoke, D. L. (2019). Stage 3 understanding by design with learning targets and best practices: An Action
Research Study (Doctoral dissertation, Capella University).
Suguraliyeva, A., Bakhtiyarova, G., Abil, A., Kapina, E., & Taganova, A. (2026). Professional competence
of future primary school teachers in the context of an updated educational system. Journal of Teaching and
Learning, 20(1), 32–47. DOI: https://doi.org/10.22329/jtl.v20i1.9264
Surma, T., Vanhees, C., Wils, M., Nijlunsing, J., Crato, N., Hattie, J., Muijs, D., Rata, E., Wiliam, D., &
Kirschner, P. A. (2025). Knowledge and the curriculum. In Developing curriculum for deep thinking: The
knowledge revival (pp. 37–73). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-74661-1_3
Suryana, S. I., Reizal, H., & Sobari, T. (2025). Integrating understanding by design (UbD) into elementary
science learning: A study on teacher and student responses. PrimaryEdu: Journal of Primary Education,
9(1), 118–131. DOI: https://doi.org/10.22460/pej.v9i1.5766
Sweller, J. (2004). Instructional design consequences of an analogy between evolution by natural selection
and human cognitive architecture. Instructional Science, 32(1–2), 9–31.